Lihat sumber bagi Obesiti

{{refimprove|date=November 2018}}
{{translate|Obesity}}
{{Infobox disease
 |Name        = Obesiti
 |Image       = Obesity-waist circumference.svg
 |Alt         = Three silhouettes depicting the outlines of a normal sized (left), overweight (middle), and obese person (right).
 |Caption     = Silhouettes dan lilitan pinggang mewakili normal, berat terlebih, dan obes 
 | Field = [[Endocrinology]]
 |DiseasesDB  = 9099
 |ICD10       = {{ICD10|E|66| |e|65}}
 |ICD9        = {{ICD9|278}}
 |MedlinePlus = 007297
 |OMIM        = 601665
 |eMedicineSubj  = med
 |eMedicineTopic = 1653
 |MeshName    = Obesity
 |MeshNumber  = C23.888.144.699.500
 |
}}
[[Fail:Charles Mellin zugeschr - Porträt eines Herrn - Gemäldegalerie Berlin.jpg|thumb|220px|Lelaki yang gemuk gedempol. Lukisan oleh Alessandro del Borro, abad ke-17.]]

<!-- Definisi dan gejala -->
'''Obesiti''' ([[Tulisan Jawi]]: اوبسيتي) merupakan keadaan perubatan di mana lemak badan berlebihan yang terkumpul sehingga ke satu tahap yang boleh menjejaskan kesihatan seseorang.<ref name=WHO2015/><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Yazdi|first1=FT|last2=Clee|first2=SM|last3=Meyre|first3=D|title=Obesity genetics in mouse and human: back and forth, and back again.|journal=PeerJ|date=2015|volume=3|pages=e856|pmid=25825681|doi=10.7717/peerj.856|pmc=4375971}}</ref> Individu itu biasanya dianggap sebagai obes apabila [[indeks jisim badan]]nya (BMI), yakni ukuran yang diperoleh daripada membahagikan berat badannya (dalam kilogram) dengan ketinggian seseorang (dalam meter) yang dikalikan dengan kuasa dua.<ref name=WHO2015/> Indeks BMI antara 20 hingga 25 dianggap normal, individu yang mempunyai BMI lebih daripada 25 dikatakan memiliki berat terlebih; dengan 30 dan ke atas, mereka ini dianggap obes, dan dengan 35 dan ke atas, mereka ini dianggap obes parah. Secara umumnya, angka BMI ini menjadi ukuran kuantitatif yang baik untuk mengenal pasti obesiti seseorang. Walaupun begitu, indeks BMI rupanya peramal yang lemah bagi individu yang sangat cergas, kerana seseorang yang memiliki tisu otot yang lebih tinggi daripada individu biasa, memperoleh keputusan BMI yang lebih tinggi daripada normal, walaupun badan individu itu sangat besar. Indeks jisim badan ini terpakai untuk orang dewasa yang telah membesar sepenuhnya dan tidak harus digunakan untuk kanak-kanak yang sedang membesar. Carta pertumbuhan khusus boleh digunakan untuk mengukur obesiti dalam kalangan kanak-kanak. Beberapa negara Asia Timur menggunakan nilai yang lebih rendah.<ref name=Kan2005>{{cite journal|last1=Kanazawa|first1=M|last2=Yoshiike|first2=N|last3=Osaka|first3=T|last4=Numba|first4=Y|last5=Zimmet|first5=P|last6=Inoue|first6=S|title=Criteria and classification of obesity in Japan and Asia-Oceania.|journal=World review of nutrition and dietetics|date=2005|volume=94|pages=1–12|pmid=16145245|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7616717_Criteria_and_Classification_of_Obesity_in_Japan_and_Asia-Oceania|doi=10.1159/000088200}}</ref> Obesiti meningkatkan kebarangkalian menghidap pelbagai penyakit berkaitan obesiti, termasuklah penyakit kardiovaskular, diabetes melitus tahap 2, apnea tidur obstruktif, jenis-jenis kanser tertentu, osteoartritis, dan asma.<ref name=HaslamJames>{{cite journal | author = Haslam DW, James WP | title = Obesity | journal = Lancet | volume = 366 | issue = 9492 | pages = 1197–209 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16198769 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(05)67483-1 | type = Review }}</ref>

<!-- Penyebab -->
Obesiti kerap kali terjadi disebabkan oleh kombinasi pengambilan tenaga makanan secara keterlaluan, kurangnya aktiviti jasmani, dan kerentanan genetik.<ref name=WHO2015/> Terdapat kes terpencil didapati disebabkan oleh gen, [[kecelaruan endokrin]], pengubatan, atau penyakit mental.<ref name=Ble2008>{{cite journal | author = Bleich S, Cutler D, Murray C, Adams A | title = Why is the developed world obese? | journal = Annu Rev Public Health | volume = 29 | pages = 273–95 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18173389 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.29.020907.090954 | type = Research Support }}</ref> Tiada bukti kukuh sebenarnya yang menyokong pandangan bahawa orang obes makan sedikit tetapi berat masih bertambah kerana metabolisme yang rendah.<ref name=OUP2011>{{cite book|title=Oxford Handbook of Medical Sciences|date=2011|publisher=OUP Oxford|location=Oxford|isbn=9780191652295|page=180|edition=2nd|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=RUQKjpkeLugC&pg=PA180}}</ref> Secara kebiasaannya, orang obes mempunyai penggunaan tenaga yang lebih banyak berbanding orang yang kurus kerana banyak tenaga diperlukan untuk mengekalkan jisim badan yang bertambah.<ref name=OUP2011/><ref>{{cite book|author=Kushner, Robert |title=Treatment of the Obese Patient (Contemporary Endocrinology) |publisher=Humana Press |location=Totowa, NJ |year=2007 |page=158 |isbn=1-59745-400-1 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=vWjK5etS7PMC |doi= |accessdate=April 5, 2009}}</ref>

<!-- Pencegahan dan rawatan -->
Obesiti sememangnya dapat dicegah dengan kombinasi perubahan sosial dan pilihan peribadi seseorang.<ref name=WHO2015/> Perubahan diet dan bersenam merupakan rawatan utamanya.<ref name=HaslamJames/> Kualiti diet dapat ditingkatkan dengan mengurangkan pengambilan makanan yang berlemak tinggi dan bergula tinggi, dan meningkatkan pengambilan serabut diet.<ref name=WHO2015/> Pengubatan boleh juga diambil, seiring dengan diet yang sesuai, untuk mengurangkan selera atau mengurangkan penyerapan lemak.<ref name=Yan2014>{{cite journal | author = Yanovski SZ, Yanovski JA | title = Long-term drug treatment for obesity: a systematic and clinical review. | journal = JAMA: the Journal of the American Medical Association | volume = 311 | issue = 1 | pages = 74–86 | date = Jan 1, 2014 | pmid = 24231879 | doi = 10.1001/jama.2013.281361 | pmc=3928674 |  type = Review }}</ref> Jika diet, senaman, dan pengubatan tidak efektif, pembedahan boleh dilakukan untuk mengurangkan isi padu perut atau panjang usus, seterusnya menyebabkan rasa kenyang lebih awal atau mengurangkan kebolehan menyerap khasiat daripada makanan.<ref name=Col2014>{{cite journal|last1=Colquitt|first1=JL|last2=Pickett|first2=K|last3=Loveman|first3=E|last4=Frampton|first4=GK|title=Surgery for weight loss in adults|journal=The Cochrane database of systematic reviews|date=Aug 8, 2014|volume=8|pages=CD003641|pmid=25105982|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003641.pub4 | type=Meta-analysis, Review}}</ref><ref name=balloon2008>{{cite journal | author = Imaz I, Martínez-Cervell C, García-Alvarez EE, Sendra-Gutiérrez JM, González-Enríquez J | title = Safety and effectiveness of the intragastric balloon for obesity. A meta-analysis | journal = Obes Surg | volume = 18 | issue = 7 | pages = 841–6 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 18459025 | doi = 10.1007/s11695-007-9331-8 }}</ref>

<!-- Epidemiologi, masyarakat dan budaya -->
Obesiti menjadi antara punca utama kematian boleh elak di serata dunia, dengan peningkatan kadar dalam kalangan dewasa dan kanak-kanak.<ref name=WHO2015/><ref>{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Mental Health|date=2015|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=9780123977533|page=158|edition=2|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=5aLxBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA158}}</ref> Pada 2014, 600 juta dewasa (13%) dan 42 juta kanak-kanak berumur bawah lima tahun merupakan obes.<ref name=WHO2015>{{cite web|title=Obesity and overweight  Fact sheet N°311|url=http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs311/en/|website=WHO|accessdate=2 February 2016|date=January 2015}}</ref> Obesiti lazimnya terjadi dalam kalangan wanita berbanding lelaki.<ref name=WHO2015/> Pihak berkuasa melihat obesiti merupakan antara masalah kesihatan awam paling serius pada abad ke-21.<ref name=Dibaise2013>{{cite journal|author=Dibaise JK, Foxx-Orenstein AE|title=Role of the gastroenterologist in managing obesity|journal=Expert Review of Gastroenterology & Hepatology|volume=7|issue=5|pages=439–51|date=July 2013|pmid=23899283|doi=10.1586/17474124.2013.811061|type=Review}}</ref> Obesiti dicela dan diaibkan dalam dunia moden (khususnya dunia Barat), walaupun pernah dilihat sebagai simbol kekayaan dan kesuburan pada suatu ketika dalam sejarah dan masih lagi berlangsung di beberapa bahagian di dunia ini.<ref name=HaslamJames/><ref name=Woodhouse>{{cite journal | author = Woodhouse R | title = Obesity in art: A brief overview | journal = Front Horm Res | volume = 36 | issue =  | pages = 271–86 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18230908 | doi = 10.1159/000115370 | url = https://books.google.com/?id=nXRU4Ea1aMkC&pg=PA271&lpg=PA271 | isbn = 978-3-8055-8429-6 | series = Frontiers of Hormone Research }}</ref> Pada 2013, Persatuan Perubatan Amerika mengklasifikasikan obesiti sebagai suatu penyakit.<ref name=NYTimes20130618>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/19/business/ama-recognizes-obesity-as-a-disease.html?_r=0 |title=A.M.A. Recognizes Obesity as a Disease |last=Pollack |first=Andrew |date=June 18, 2013 |newspaper=New York Times |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/6Hav05TK0 |archivedate=June 18, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hhnmag.com/hhnmag/HHNDaily/HHNDailyDisplay.dhtml?id=5870001020 |title=The Facts About Obesity |last1=Weinstock |first1=Matthew |date=June 21, 2013 |website=H&HN |publisher=[[American Hospital Association]] |accessdate=June 24, 2013}}</ref>

==Klasifikasi==
[[File:Obesity & BMI.png|thumb|Obesiti dan BMI]]
[[File:Obesity6.JPG|thumb|upright=1|right|alt=Pandangan depan dan sisi torso lelaki "obes melampau". Tanda regangan pada kulit kelihatan seiring dengan ginekomastia.|Lelaki "obes melampau" dengan BMI 53&nbsp;kg/m<sup>2</sup>: berat 182&nbsp;kg (400&nbsp;lb), tinggi 185&nbsp;cm (6&nbsp;ft 1&nbsp;in)]]
{{main|Klasifikasi obesiti}}
Obesiti merupakan keadaan kesihatan di mana lemak badan berlebihan yang terkumpul sehingga ke satu tahap yang boleh menjejaskan kesihatan seseorang.<ref name="WHO 2000 p.6">WHO 2000 p.6</ref> Ia didefinisikan oleh indeks jisim badan (BMI) dan tentunya dinilai dari segi pengagihan lemak melalui nisbah pinggang-pinggul dan faktor risiko kardiovaskular.<ref name=Sweet2007>{{cite journal | author = Sweeting HN | title = Measurement and Definitions of Obesity In Childhood and Adolescence: A field guide for the uninitiated | journal = Nutr J | volume = 6 | issue = 1 | page = 32 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17963490 | pmc = 2164947 | doi = 10.1186/1475-2891-6-32 | url = http://www.nutritionj.com/content/6/1/32 }}</ref><ref>NHLBI p.xiv</ref> BMI berkait rapat dengan peratusan lemak badan dan jumlah lemak badan.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Gray DS, Fujioka K | title = Use of relative weight and Body Mass Index for the determination of adiposity | journal = J Clin Epidemiol | volume = 44 | issue = 6 | pages = 545–50 | year = 1991 | pmid = 2037859 | doi = 10.1016/0895-4356(91)90218-X }}</ref>
Dalam kalangan kanak-kanak, berat yang sihat berbeza mengikut umur dan jantina. Obesiti dalam kalangan kanak-kanak dan remaja didefinisikan bukan sebagai angka mutlak tetapi berhubungan dengan kumpulan normal sejarah, sepertimana obesiti tergolong dalam BMI lebih daripada 95 persentil.<ref name="cdc.gov">{{cite web|url=http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/healthyweight/assessing/bmi/childrens_BMI/about_childrens_BMI.htm |title=Healthy Weight: Assessing Your Weight: BMI: About BMI for Children and Teens |publisher=[[Center for disease control and prevention]] |accessdate=April 6, 2009}}</ref> Data rujukan yang digunakan untuk persentil ini berdasarkan antara tahun 1963 hingga 1994, dan tidak terjejas dengan peningkatan berat pada masa ini.<ref name="Flegal KM, Ogden CL, Wei R, Kuczmarski RL, Johnson CL 2001 1086–93">{{cite journal | author = Flegal KM, Ogden CL, Wei R, Kuczmarski RL, Johnson CL | title = Prevalence of overweight in US children: comparison of US growth charts from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention with other reference values for body mass index | journal = Am. J. Clin. Nutr. | volume = 73 | issue = 6 | pages = 1086–93 | date = June 2001 | pmid = 11382664 | doi =  | url = http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/73/6/1086 }}</ref>
BMI diukur berdasarkan berat subjek yang dibahagikan dengan kuasa dua bagi ketinggian mereka dan dikira seperti berikut.

:<math>\mathrm{BMI}= \frac{b}{t^2}</math>,

:di mana ''b'' and ''t'' merupakan berat subjek dan tinggi subjek masing-masing.

BMI diungkapkan dalam kilogram per meter persegi, menjadikan berat diukur dalam kilogram dan tinggi dalam meter. Untuk menukar kepada paun per inci persegi, darabkan {{nowrap|703 (kg/m<sup>2</sup>)/(lb/sq in)}}.<ref>{{nowrap|1 (lb/sq in)}} is more precisely {{nowrap|703.06957964 (kg/m<sup>2</sup>)}}.</ref>

{| class="wikitable" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align:center"
! colspan="2"| BMI (kg/m<sup>2</sup>) !! rowspan="2" valign="top" | Klasifikasi<ref>{{cite web|title=BMI classification|url=http://apps.who.int/bmi/index.jsp?introPage=intro_3.html|work=World Health Organization|accessdate=15 February 2014}}</ref>
|-
! dari !! hingga
|-
|      || 18.5 || berat terkurang
|-
| 18.5 || 25.0 || berat normal
|-
| 25.0 || 30.0 || berat terlebih
|-
| 30.0 || 35.0 || obesiti kelas I
|-
| 35.0 || 40.0 || obesiti kelas II
|-
| 40.0 ||      || obesiti kelas III
|}
Definisi yang paling kerap digunakan, diperkenalkan oleh Pertubuhan Kesihatan Dunia (WHO) pada 1997 dan diterbitkan pada 2000, menyediakan nilai yang disenaraikan di jadual.<ref name="WHO 2000 p.9">WHO 2000 p.9</ref>

Beberapa pengubahsuaian kepada definisi WHO dibuat oleh beberapa badan tertentu. Kesusasteraan pembedahan memecahkan kelas III kepada beberapa kategori yang mana nilai tepatnya masih lagi dipertikaikan.<ref name=morbid2007>{{cite journal | author = Sturm R | title = Increases in morbid obesity in the USA: 2000–2005 | journal = Public Health | volume = 121 | issue = 7 | pages = 492–6 | date = July 2007 | pmid = 17399752 | pmc = 2864630 | doi = 10.1016/j.puhe.2007.01.006 }}</ref>
:* Sebarang BMI ≥ 35 or 40&nbsp;kg/m<sup>2</sup> merupakan ''obesiti parah''.
:* BMI ≥ 35&nbsp;kg/m<sup>2</sup> dan mengalami keadaan kesihatan berkaitan obesiti atau ≥40–44.9&nbsp;kg/m<sup>2</sup> merupakan ''obesiti mengerikan''.
:* BMI ≥ 45 atau 50&nbsp;kg/m<sup>2</sup> is ''obesiti melampau''.

Populasi orang Asia cenderung menghadapi kesan sampingan kesihatan negatif pada kadar BMI lebih rendah berbanding orang Kaukasia, beberapa negara mendefinisikan semula obesiti; orang Jepun mendefinisikan obesiti sebagai sebarang BMI melebihi 25&nbsp;kg/m<sup>2</sup><ref name=Kan2005/> manakala China menetapkan BMI lebih daripada 28&nbsp;kg/m<sup>2</sup>.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Bei-Fan Z | title = Predictive values of body mass index and waist circumference for risk factors of certain related diseases in Chinese adults: study on optimal cut-off points of body mass index and waist circumference in Chinese adults | journal = Asia Pac J Clin Nutr | volume = 11 Suppl 8 | issue =  | pages = S685–93 | date = December 2002 | pmid = 12534691 | doi = 10.1046/j.1440-6047.11.s8.9.x }}</ref>

==Kesan terhadap kesihatan==
Berat badan berlebihan meningkatkan kebarangkalian menghidap pelbagai penyakit berkaitan obesiti, termasuklah penyakit kardiovaskular, diabetes melitus tahap 2, apnea tidur obstruktif, jenis-jenis kanser tertentu, dan asma.<ref name=HaslamJames/><ref name=Poulain/> Hasilnya, obesiti didapati mengurangkan jangka hayat kehidupan.<ref name=HaslamJames/>

===Kematian===
{{Double image|right|MenBMIMort.png|200|WomenBMIMort.png|200|alt=(Left) Graf menunjukkan bagaimana risiko kematian berbeza mengikut BMI. Risiko paling rendah didapati pada BMI 20 hingga 25 dan meningkat pada kedua-dua arah. (Right) Graf menunjukkan bagaimana risiko kematian berbeza mengikut BMI. Risiko paling rendah didapati pada BMI 20 hingga 25 dan meningkat pada kedua-dua arah.|Risiko relatif kematian umur melebihi 10 tahun bagi lelaki kulit putih (kiri) dan perempuan kulit putih (kanan) yang tidak pernah merokok di Amerika Syarikat berdasarkan BMI.<ref name=NEJM10>{{cite journal | author = Berrington de Gonzalez A, Hartge P, Cerhan JR, Flint AJ, Hannan L, MacInnis RJ, Moore SC, Tobias GS, Anton-Culver H, Freeman LB, Beeson WL, Clipp SL, English DR, Folsom AR, Freedman DM, Giles G, Hakansson N, Henderson KD, Hoffman-Bolton J, Hoppin JA, Koenig KL, Lee IM, Linet MS, Park Y, Pocobelli G, Schatzkin A, Sesso HD, Weiderpass E, Willcox BJ, Wolk A, Zeleniuch-Jacquotte A, Willett WC, Thun MJ | title = Body-mass index and mortality among 1.46 million white adults | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 363 | issue = 23 | pages = 2211–9 | year = 2010 | pmid = 21121834 | pmc = 3066051 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa1000367 }}</ref>||}}

Obesiti menjadi antara punca utama kematian boleh elak di serata dunia.<ref name=Barn1999>{{cite journal | author = Barness LA, Opitz JM, Gilbert-Barness E | title = Obesity: genetic, molecular, and environmental aspects | journal = American Journal of Medical Genetics | volume = 143A | issue = 24 | pages = 3016–34 | date = December 2007 | pmid = 18000969 | doi = 10.1002/ajmg.a.32035 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Mokdad AH, Marks JS, Stroup DF, Gerberding JL | title = Actual causes of death in the United States, 2000 | journal = [[JAMA (journal)|JAMA]] | volume = 291 | issue = 10 | pages = 1238–45 | date = March 2004 | pmid = 15010446 | doi = 10.1001/jama.291.10.1238 | url = http://www.csdp.org/research/1238.pdf | format = PDF }}</ref><ref name=Allison>{{cite journal | author = Allison DB, Fontaine KR, Manson JE, Stevens J, VanItallie TB | title = Annual deaths attributable to obesity in the United States | journal = [[JAMA (journal)|JAMA]] | volume = 282 | issue = 16 | pages = 1530–8 | date = October 1999 | pmid = 10546692 | doi = 10.1001/jama.282.16.1530 | url = http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/282/16/1530 }}</ref> Kajian Amerika dan Eropah berskala besar mendapati risiko kematian paling rendah berada pada BMI 20–25&nbsp;kg/m<sup>2</sup><ref name=NEJM10/><ref name=Lancet2009>{{cite journal | author = Whitlock G, Lewington S, Sherliker P, Clarke R, Emberson J, Halsey J, Qizilbash N, Collins R, Peto R | title = Body-mass index and cause-specific mortality in 900 000 adults: collaborative analyses of 57 prospective studies | journal = Lancet | volume = 373 | issue = 9669 | pages = 1083–96 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 19299006 | pmc = 2662372 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(09)60318-4 }}</ref> dalam kalangan bukan perokok dan pada 24–27&nbsp;kg/m<sup>2</sup> dalam kalangan perokok semasa, dengan risiko bertambah seiring dengan perubah pada mana-mana arah.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Calle EE, Thun MJ, Petrelli JM, Rodriguez C, Heath CW | title = Body-mass index and mortality in a prospective cohort of U.S. adults | journal = N. Engl. J. Med. | volume = 341 | issue = 15 | pages = 1097–105 | date = October 1999 | pmid = 10511607 | doi = 10.1056/NEJM199910073411501 | url = http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/341/15/1097 }}</ref><ref name=Euro2008>{{cite journal | author = Pischon T, Boeing H, Hoffmann K, Bergmann M, Schulze MB, Overvad K, van der Schouw YT, Spencer E, Moons KG, Tjønneland A| title = General and abdominal adiposity and risk of death in Europe | journal = N. Engl. J. Med. | volume = 359 | issue = 20 | pages = 2105–20 | date = November 2008 | pmid = 19005195 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa0801891 |display-authors=etal}}</ref> Dalam kalangan orang Asia risiko mula bertambah antara 22–25&nbsp;kg/m<sup>2</sup>.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=WHO Expert|first1=Consultation|title=Appropriate body-mass index for Asian populations and its implications for policy and intervention strategies.|journal=Lancet|date=Jan 10, 2004|volume=363|issue=9403|pages=157–63|pmid=14726171|doi=10.1016/s0140-6736(03)15268-3}}</ref> BMI melebihi 32&nbsp;kg/m<sup>2</sup> berhubung kait dengan kadar kematian berganda dua dalam kalangan wanita sepanjang tempoh 16 tahun.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Manson JE, Willett WC, Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Hunter DJ, Hankinson SE, Hennekens CH, Speizer FE | title = Body weight and mortality among women | journal = N. Engl. J. Med. | volume = 333 | issue = 11 | pages = 677–85 | year = 1995 | pmid = 7637744 | doi = 10.1056/NEJM199509143331101 }}</ref> Di Amerika Syarikat, obesiti dianggarkan menyebabkan 111,909 hingga 365,000 kematian setiap tahun,<ref name=HaslamJames/><ref name=Allison/> manakala 1 juta (7.7%) kematian di Eropah disebabkan oleh berat berlebihan.<ref name=EuroG2008/><ref name=Euro2007>{{cite journal | author = Fried M, Hainer V, Basdevant A, Buchwald H, Deitel M, Finer N, Greve JW, Horber F, Mathus-Vliegen E, Scopinaro N, Steffen R, Tsigos C, Weiner R, Widhalm K | title = Inter-disciplinary European guidelines on surgery of severe obesity | journal = Int J Obes (Lond) | volume = 31 | issue = 4 | pages = 569–77 | date = April 2007 | pmid = 17325689 | doi = 10.1038/sj.ijo.0803560 }}</ref> Secara puratanya, obesiti mengurangkan jangka hayat kehidupan antara enam hingga tujuh tahun,<ref name=HaslamJames/><ref>{{cite journal | author = Peeters A, Barendregt JJ, Willekens F, Mackenbach JP, Al Mamun A, Bonneux L | title = Obesity in adulthood and its consequences for life expectancy: A life-table analysis | journal = Annals of Internal Medicine | volume = 138 | issue = 1 | pages = 24–32 | date = January 2003 | pmid = 12513041 | doi = 10.7326/0003-4819-138-1-200301070-00008 | url = http://www.annals.org/cgi/reprint/138/1/24 }}</ref> BMI 30–35&nbsp;kg/m<sup>2</sup> mengurangkan jangka hayat kehidupan antara dua hingga empat tahun,<ref name=Lancet2009/> manakala obesiti parah (BMI&nbsp;>&nbsp;40&nbsp;kg/m<sup>2</sup>) mengurangkan jangka hayat kehidupan sebanyak sepuluh tahun.<ref name=Lancet2009/>

===Morbiditi===
{{main|Morbiditi berkaitan obesiti}}
Obesiti meningkatkan risiko menjejaskan keadaan fizikal dan mental. Komorbiditi sangat kerap ditunjukkan melalui sindrom metabolik,<ref name=HaslamJames/> kombinasi kecelaruan perubatan termasuklah: diabetes melitus type 2, tekanan darah tinggi, kolestrol dalam darah tinggi, dan tahap trigliserida tinggi.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Grundy SM | title = Obesity, metabolic syndrome, and cardiovascular disease | journal = J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. | volume = 89 | issue = 6 | pages = 2595–600 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15181029 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2004-0372 }}</ref>

Komplikasi sama ada disebabkan secara langsung oleh obesiti atau secara tidak langsung berkaitan dengan mekanisme berkongsi punca lazim seperti diet tidak sihat atau gaya hidup banyak duduk. Kekuatan hubung kait antara obesiti dan keadaan spesifik berbeza. Satu daripada kekuatannya ialah hubungan dengan diabetes mellitus tahap 2. Berat badan berlebihan mendasari 64% kes diabetes dalam kalangan lelaki dan 77% kes dalam kalangan wanita.<ref>Seidell 2005 p.9</ref>

Kesan sampingan kesihatan jatuh kepada dua kategori yang luas: kesan yang diagihkan kepada kesan jisim lemak yang bertambah (seperti osteoartritis, apnea tidur obstruktif, pengaiban sosial) dan kesan yang disebabkan oleh bilangan sel lemak yang bertambah (diabetes melitus, kanser, penyakit kardiovaskular, penyakit hati berlemak bukan-beralkohol.<ref name=HaslamJames/><ref name=Bray2004>{{cite journal | author = Bray GA | title = Medical consequences of obesity | journal = J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. | volume = 89 | issue = 6 | pages = 2583–9 | year = 2004 | pmid = 15181027 | doi = 10.1210/jc.2004-0535 }}</ref> Pertambahan lemak badan mengubah tindak balas badan kepada insulin, berpotensi menjurus kepada kerintangan insulin. Lemak yang bertambah juga mewujudkan keadaan proradang,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Shoelson SE, Herrero L, Naaz A | title = Obesity, inflammation, and insulin resistance | journal = Gastroenterology | volume = 132 | issue = 6 | pages = 2169–80 | date = May 2007 | pmid = 17498510 | doi = 10.1053/j.gastro.2007.03.059 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Shoelson SE, Lee J, Goldfine AB | title = Inflammation and insulin resistance | journal = J. Clin. Invest. | volume = 116 | issue = 7 | pages = 1793–801 | date = July 2006 | pmid = 16823477 | pmc = 1483173 | doi = 10.1172/JCI29069 | url = http://www.jci.org/articles/view/29069 }}</ref> dan keadaan protrombotik.<ref name=Bray2004/><ref>{{cite journal | author = Dentali F, Squizzato A, Ageno W | title = The metabolic syndrome as a risk factor for venous and arterial thrombosis | journal = Semin. Thromb. Hemost. | volume = 35 | issue = 5 | pages = 451–7 | date = July 2009 | pmid = 19739035 | doi = 10.1055/s-0029-1234140 }}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Bidang perubatan
! Keadaan
! Bidang perubatan
! Keadaan
|-
<!--Mengikut abjad-->|width=10%| [[Kardiologi]]
|
* [[penyakit jantung koronari]]:<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Global Burden of Metabolic Risk Factors for Chronic Diseases Collaboration (BMI Mediated|first1=Effects)|last2=Lu|first2=Y|last3=Hajifathalian|first3=K|last4=Ezzati|first4=M|last5=Woodward|first5=M|last6=Rimm|first6=EB|last7=Danaei|first7=G|title=Metabolic mediators of the effects of body-mass index, overweight, and obesity on coronary heart disease and stroke: a pooled analysis of 97 prospective cohorts with 1·8 million participants.|journal=Lancet (London, England)|date=15 March 2014|volume=383|issue=9921|pages=970–83|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61836-X|pmid=24269108}}</ref> [[angina]] and [[penginfarkan miokardium]]
* [[kegagalan jantung kongestif]]<ref name=HaslamJames/>
* [[tekanan darah tinggi]]<ref name=HaslamJames/>
* [[dislipidemia]]<ref name=HaslamJames/>
* [[trombosis vena dalam]] dan [[embolisme pulmonari]]<ref>{{cite journal | author = Darvall KA, Sam RC, Silverman SH, Bradbury AW, Adam DJ | title = Obesity and thrombosis | journal = Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg | volume = 33 | issue = 2 | pages = 223–33 | date = February 2007 | pmid = 17185009 | doi = 10.1016/j.ejvs.2006.10.006 }}</ref>
| <!--Mengikut abjad-->[[Dermatologi]]
|
* [[tanda regangan]]<ref name=derm2007/>
* [[akantosis nigrikans]]<ref name=derm2007>{{cite journal | author = Yosipovitch G, DeVore A, Dawn A | title = Obesity and the skin: skin physiology and skin manifestations of obesity | journal = J. Am. Acad. Dermatol. | volume = 56 | issue = 6 | pages = 901–16; quiz 917–20 | date = June 2007 | pmid = 17504714 | doi = 10.1016/j.jaad.2006.12.004 | url =  }}</ref>
* [[limfedema]]<ref name=derm2007/>
* [[selulitis]]<ref name=derm2007/>
* [[hirsutisme]]<ref name=derm2007/>
* [[intertrigo]]<ref>{{cite journal | author = Hahler B | title = An overview of dermatological conditions commonly associated with the obese patient | journal = Ostomy Wound Manage | volume = 52 | issue = 6 | pages = 34–6, 38, 40 passim | date = June 2006 | pmid = 16799182 | doi =  | url =  }}</ref>
|-
| <!--Mengikut abjad-->[[Endokrinologi]] dan [[Perubatan pembiakan]]
|
* [[diabetes melitus]]<ref name=HaslamJames/>
* [[sindrom ovari polisistik]]<ref name=HaslamJames/>
* kecelaruan [[haid]]<ref name=HaslamJames/>
* [[kemandulan]]<ref name=HaslamJames/><ref name=OBGYN2008>{{cite journal |authors=Arendas K, Qiu Q, Gruslin A |title=Obesity in pregnancy: pre-conceptional to postpartum consequences |journal=Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada : JOGC = Journal D'obstétrique Et Gynécologie Du Canada : JOGC |volume=30 |issue=6 |pages=477–88 |year=2008 |pmid=18611299 |doi= |url=}}</ref>
* [[komplikasi ketika mengandung]]<ref name=HaslamJames/><ref name=OBGYN2008/>
* [[kecacatan lahir]]<ref name=HaslamJames/>
* [[kematian bayi dalam rahim]]<ref name=OBGYN2008/>
| <!--Mengikut abjad-->[[Gastroenterologi]]
|
* [[penyakit refluks gastroesofagus]]<ref name=Dibaise2013/>
* [[penyakit hati berlemak bukan-beralkohol]]<ref name=Dibaise2013/>
* [[kolelitiasis]] (batu hempedu)<ref name=Dibaise2013/>
|-
| <!--Mengikut abjad-->[[Neurologi]]
| style="width:40%;"|
* [[strok]]<ref name=HaslamJames/>
* [[meralgia parestetika]]<ref>{{cite journal | author = Harney D, Patijn J | title = Meralgia paresthetica: diagnosis and management strategies | journal = Pain Med | volume = 8 | issue = 8 | pages = 669–77 | year = 2007 | pmid = 18028045 | doi = 10.1111/j.1526-4637.2006.00227.x | url = | type = Review }}</ref>
* [[migrain]]<ref>{{cite journal | author = Bigal ME, Lipton RB | title = Obesity and chronic daily headache | journal = Curr Pain Headache Rep | volume = 12 | issue = 1 | pages = 56–61 | date = January 2008 | pmid = 18417025 | doi = 10.1007/s11916-008-0011-8 | url = | type = Review }}</ref>
* [[sindrom terowong karpal]]<ref>{{cite journal | author = Sharifi-Mollayousefi A, Yazdchi-Marandi M, Ayramlou H, Heidari P, Salavati A, Zarrintan S, Sharifi-Mollayousefi A | title = Assessment of body mass index and hand anthropometric measurements as independent risk factors for carpal tunnel syndrome | journal = Folia Morphol. (Warsz) | volume = 67 | issue = 1 | pages = 36–42 | date = February 2008 | pmid = 18335412 | doi =  }}</ref>
* [[demensia]]<ref>{{cite journal | author = Beydoun MA, Beydoun HA, Wang Y | title = Obesity and central obesity as risk factors for incident dementia and its subtypes: A systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = Obes Rev | volume = 9 | issue = 3 | pages = 204–18 | date = May 2008 | pmid = 18331422 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00473.x | type=Meta-analysis}}</ref>
* [[tekanan darah tinggi idiopatik intrakranium]]<ref>{{cite journal | author = Wall M | title = Idiopathic intracranial hypertension (pseudotumor cerebri) | journal = Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 87–93 | date = March 2008 | pmid = 18460275 | doi = 10.1007/s11910-008-0015-0 | url = | type = Review }}</ref>
* [[sklerosis berbilang]]<ref>{{cite journal | author = Munger KL, Chitnis T, Ascherio A | title = Body size and risk of MS in two cohorts of US women | journal = Neurology | volume = 73 | issue = 19 | pages = 1543–50 | year = 2009 | pmid = 19901245 | pmc = 2777074 | doi = 10.1212/WNL.0b013e3181c0d6e0 | type = Comparative Study }}</ref>
| <!--Mengikut abjad-->[[Onkologi]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Basen-Engquist|first1=Karen|last2=Chang|first2=Maria|title=Obesity and Cancer Risk: Recent Review and Evidence|journal=Current Oncology Reports|date=16 November 2010|volume=13|issue=1|pages=71–76|doi=10.1007/s11912-010-0139-7|pmid=21080117}}</ref>
|
* [[kanser esofagus]]
* [[kanser kolorektum]]
* [[kanser pankreas]]
* [[kanser pundi hempedu]],
* [[kanser endometrium]]
* [[karsinoma sel renal]]
* [[leukemia]]
* [[karsinoma hepatoselular]]<ref name=Dibaise2013/>
* [[melanoma malignan]]
|-
| style="width:10%;"| <!--Mengikut abjad-->[[Psikiatri]]
| style="width:40%;"|
* [[Kecelaruan kemurungan utama]]<ref name=HaslamJames/>
* [[keaiban sosial]]<ref name=HaslamJames/>
| <!--Mengikut abjad-->[[Respirologi]]
|
* [[apnea tidur obstruktif]]<ref name=HaslamJames/><ref name=Poulain>{{cite journal | author = Poulain M, Doucet M, Major GC, Drapeau V, Sériès F, Boulet LP, Tremblay A, Maltais F | title = The effect of obesity on chronic respiratory diseases: pathophysiology and therapeutic strategies | journal = CMAJ | volume = 174 | issue = 9 | pages = 1293–9 | date = April 2006 | pmid = 16636330 | pmc = 1435949 | doi = 10.1503/cmaj.051299 | url = http://www.cmaj.ca/cgi/content/full/174/9/1293 }}</ref>
* [[sindrom hipoventilasi obesiti]]<ref name=HaslamJames/><ref name=Poulain/>
* [[asma]]<ref name=HaslamJames/><ref name=Poulain/>
* komplikasi bertambah semasa [[anestesia umum]]<ref name=HaslamJames/>
|-
| <!--Mengikut abjad-->[[Reumatologi]] dan [[Ortopedik]]
|
* [[gout]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Aune|first1=D|last2=Norat|first2=T|last3=Vatten|first3=LJ|title=Body mass index and the risk of gout: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies.|journal=European journal of nutrition|date=December 2014|volume=53|issue=8|pages=1591–601|doi=10.1007/s00394-014-0766-0|pmid=25209031}}</ref>
* mobiliti lemah<ref>{{cite journal | author = Tukker A, Visscher TL, Picavet HS | title = Overweight and health problems of the lower extremities: osteoarthritis, pain and disability | journal = Public Health Nutr | volume = 12 | issue = 3 | pages = 1–10 | date = April 2008 | pmid = 18426630 | doi = 10.1017/S1368980008002103 | url =  | type = Research Support }}</ref>
* [[osteoartritis]]<ref name=HaslamJames/>
* [[sakit belakang rendah]]<ref>{{cite journal | author = Molenaar EA, Numans ME, van Ameijden EJ, Grobbee DE | title = [Considerable comorbidity in overweight adults: results from the Utrecht Health Project] | language = Dutch | journal = Ned Tijdschr Geneeskd | volume = 152 | issue = 45 | pages = 2457–63 | date = November 2008 | pmid = 19051798 | doi =  | url = | type = English abstract }}</ref>
| <!--Mengikut abjad-->[[Urologi]] dan [[Nefrologi]]
|
* [[disfungsi erektil]]<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Corona|first1=G|last2=Rastrelli|first2=G|last3=Filippi|first3=S|last4=Vignozzi|first4=L|last5=Mannucci|first5=E|last6=Maggi|first6=M|title=Erectile dysfunction and central obesity: an Italian perspective.|journal=Asian Journal of Andrology|date=2014|volume=16|issue=4|pages=581–91|doi=10.4103/1008-682X.126386|pmid=24713832}}</ref>
* [[inkontinens urinari]]<ref>{{cite journal | author = Hunskaar S | title = A systematic review of overweight and obesity as risk factors and targets for clinical intervention for urinary incontinence in women | journal = Neurourol. Urodyn. | volume = 27 | issue = 8 | pages = 749–57 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18951445 | doi = 10.1002/nau.20635 | url = | type = Review }}</ref>
* [[kegagalan renal kronik]]<ref>{{cite journal | author = Ejerblad E, Fored CM, Lindblad P, Fryzek J, McLaughlin JK, Nyrén O | title = Obesity and risk for chronic renal failure | journal = J. Am. Soc. Nephrol. | volume = 17 | issue = 6 | pages = 1695–702 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16641153 | doi = 10.1681/ASN.2005060638 | type = Research Support }}</ref>
* [[hipogonadisme]]<ref>{{cite journal | author = Makhsida N, Shah J, Yan G, Fisch H, Shabsigh R | title = Hypogonadism and metabolic syndrome: Implications for testosterone therapy | journal = J. Urol. | volume = 174 | issue = 3 | pages = 827–34 | date = September 2005 | pmid = 16093964 | doi = 10.1097/01.ju.0000169490.78443.59 | type = Review }}</ref>
* [[penis tersembunyi]]<ref name="pmid19935302">{{cite journal | author = Pestana IA, Greenfield JM, Walsh M, Donatucci CF, Erdmann D | title = Management of "buried" penis in adulthood: an overview | journal = Plast. Reconstr. Surg. | volume = 124 | issue = 4 | pages = 1186–95 | date = October 2009 | pmid = 19935302 | doi = 10.1097/PRS.0b013e3181b5a37f | type = Review }}</ref>
|}

===Paradoks kemandirian===
{{See also|Paradoks obesiti}}
Walaupun kesan sampingan kesihatan negatif obesiti dalam populasi penduduk disokong kukuh dengan bukti sedia ada, hasil kesihatan bagi beberapa subkumpulan kelihatan meningkat pada BMI yang bertambah, fenomena yang dikenali sebagai paradoks kemandirian obesiti.<ref name=Schmidt2007>{{cite journal | author = Schmidt DS, Salahudeen AK | title = Obesity-survival paradox-still a controversy? | journal = Semin Dial | volume = 20 | issue = 6 | pages = 486–92 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17991192 | doi = 10.1111/j.1525-139X.2007.00349.x | type = Review }}</ref> Paradoks ini pertama kali diperihalkan pada 1999 dalam kalangan orang berat terlebih dan obes yang menjalani hemodialisis,<ref name=Schmidt2007/> dan kemudiannya didapati dalam kalangan mereka yang menghidap kegagalan jantung dan penyakit vaskular periferal.<ref name=paradox2003>{{cite journal | author = U.S. Preventive Services Task Force | title = Behavioral counseling in primary care to promote a healthy diet: recommendations and rationale | journal = Am Fam Physician | volume = 67 | issue = 12 | pages = 2573–6 | date = June 2003 | pmid = 12825847 | doi = | type = Review }}</ref>

Dalam kalangan penghidap kegagalan jantung, mereka yang mempunyai BMI antara 30.00 hingga 34.9 memiliki kematian lebih rendah berbanding mereka yang mempunyai berat normal. Hal ini disebabkan oleh hakikat bahawa manusia sering hilang berat badan apabila mereka secara berperingkat-peringkat semakin sakit.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Habbu A, Lakkis NM, Dokainish H | title = The obesity paradox: Fact or fiction? | journal = Am. J. Cardiol. | volume = 98 | issue = 7 | pages = 944–8 | date = October 2006 | pmid = 16996880 | doi = 10.1016/j.amjcard.2006.04.039 | type = Review }}</ref> Penemuan sama juga dilihat pada jenis penyakit jantung lain. Orang yang mempunyai obesiti kelas I dan penyakit jantung tidak mempunyai kadar masalah lanjutan jantung yang lebih besar daripada orang yang mempunyai berat normal yang turut menghidap penyakit jantung. Dalam kalangan orang yang mempunyai darjah obesiti yang lebih besar, walau bagaimanapun, risiko masalah lanjutan kardiovaskular bertambah.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Romero-Corral A, Montori VM, Somers VK, Korinek J, Thomas RJ, Allison TG, Mookadam F, Lopez-Jimenez F | title = Association of bodyweight with total mortality and with cardiovascular events in coronary artery disease: A systematic review of cohort studies | journal = Lancet | volume = 368 | issue = 9536 | pages = 666–78 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16920472 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69251-9 | type = Review }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Oreopoulos A, Padwal R, Kalantar-Zadeh K, Fonarow GC, Norris CM, McAlister FA | title = Body mass index and mortality in heart failure: A meta-analysis | journal = Am. Heart J. | volume = 156 | issue = 1 | pages = 13–22 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 18585492 | doi = 10.1016/j.ahj.2008.02.014 | url = | type = Meta-analysis, Review }}</ref> Walaupun selepas pembedahan pintasan koronari arteri,  tiada pertambahan kematian dilihat berlaku dalam kalangan orang yang berat terlebih dan obes.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Oreopoulos A, Padwal R, Norris CM, Mullen JC, Pretorius V, Kalantar-Zadeh K | title = Effect of obesity on short- and long-term mortality postcoronary revascularization: A meta-analysis | journal = Obesity (Silver Spring) | volume = 16 | issue = 2 | pages = 442–50 | date = February 2008 | pmid = 18239657 | doi = 10.1038/oby.2007.36 | type = Meta-analysis }}</ref> Satu kajian mendapati kemandirian yang bertambah dapat dijelaskan oleh rawatan yang lebih agresif yang diterima oleh orang obes selepas peristiwa kardium.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Diercks DB, Roe MT, Mulgund J, Pollack CV, Kirk JD, Gibler WB, Ohman EM, Smith SC, Boden WE, Peterson ED | title = The obesity paradox in non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes: Results from the Can Rapid risk stratification of Unstable angina patients Suppress ADverse outcomes with Early implementation of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Guidelines Quality Improvement Initiative | journal = Am Heart J | volume = 152 | issue = 1 | pages = 140–8 | date = July 2006 | pmid = 16824844 | doi = 10.1016/j.ahj.2005.09.024 | type = Research Support }}</ref> Satu lagi penemuan mendapati jika seseorang mengalami penyakit pulmonari obstruktif kronik serentak dengan penyakit vaskular periferal, manfaat obesiti tidak lagi wujud.<ref name=paradox2003/>

==Penyebab==
Pada peringkat individu, kombinasi pengambilan tenaga makanan secara keterlaluan dan kurangnya aktiviti jasmani difikirkan untuk menjelaskan kebanyakan kes obesiti.<ref name=CADG2006/> Sebilangan kes terpencil berpunca disebabkan oleh genetik, sebab perubatan atau kesakitan psikiatri.<ref name=Ble2008/> Sebagai perbandingan, penambahan kadar obesiti pada tahap kemasyarakatan dirasakan berpunca disebabkan diet makanan mudah didapati dan melazatkan,<ref>{{cite journal | author = Drewnowski A, Specter SE | title = Poverty and obesity: the role of energy density and energy costs | journal = Am. J. Clin. Nutr. | volume = 79 | issue = 1 | pages = 6–16 | date = January 2004 | pmid = 14684391 | doi =  | url = http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/79/1/6 | type = Review }}</ref> peningkatan kebergantungan terhadap kereta, dan perkilangan berjentera.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Nestle M, Jacobson MF | title = Halting the obesity epidemic: a public health policy approach | journal = Public Health Rep | volume = 115 | issue = 1 | pages = 12–24 | year = 2000 | pmid = 10968581 | pmc = 1308552 | doi = 10.1093/phr/115.1.12 | url = | type = Research Support }}</ref><ref name=James2008>{{cite journal | author = James WP | title = The fundamental drivers of the obesity epidemic | journal = Obes Rev | volume = 9 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = 6–13 | date = March 2008 | pmid = 18307693 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2007.00432.x | type = Review }}</ref>

Ulasan tahun 2006 mengenal pasti sepuluh penyumbang berpotensi lain kepada peningkatan masalah obesiti: (1) tidur yang tidak mencukupi, (2) disruptor endokrin (bahan pencemar persekitaran yang mengganggu metabolisme lipid), (3) berkurangnya keragaman suhu sekeliling, (4) berkurangnya kadar merokok tembakau, kerana merokok menahan selera, (5) bertambahnya penggunaan pengubatan yang menyebabkan peningkatan berat (contohnya, antipsikotik atipikal), (6) proporsional bertambah dalam etnik dan kumpulan umur yang cenderung lebih berat, (7) mengandung pada umur lewat (menyebabkan kerentanan kepada obesiti dalam kalangan kanak-kanak), (8) faktor risiko epigenetik diwariskan kepada generasi seterusnya, (9) pemilihan semula jadi bagi BMI lebih tinggi, dan (10) pasangan sesama ciri menjurus kepada bertambahnya penumpuan faktor risiko obesiti (ini boleh meningkatkan bilangan orang obes dengan meningkatkan kelainan populasi dari segi berat).<ref name="pmid16801930">{{cite journal | author = Keith SW, Redden DT, Katzmarzyk PT, Boggiano MM, Hanlon EC, Benca RM, Ruden D, Pietrobelli A, Barger JL, Fontaine KR, Wang C, Aronne LJ, Wright SM, Baskin M, Dhurandhar NV, Lijoi MC, Grilo CM, DeLuca M, Westfall AO, Allison DB | title = Putative contributors to the secular increase in obesity: Exploring the roads less traveled | journal = Int J Obes (Lond) | volume = 30 | issue = 11 | pages = 1585–94 | year = 2006 | pmid = 16801930 | doi = 10.1038/sj.ijo.0803326 | url = http://www.nature.com/ijo/journal/v30/n11/full/0803326a.html | type = Review }}</ref> Meskipun terdapat bukti penting yang menyokong pengaruh mekanisme tersebut ke atas bertambahnya kelaziman obesiti, bukti ini masih lagi tidak mempunyai kesimpulan, dan pengarang menyatakan bukti ini kurang berpengaruh berbanding yang dibincangkan pada perenggan sebelumnya.

===Diet===
{{Main|Diet dan obesiti}}
<div class="thumb tright" style="width: 417px; ">
<div class="thumbinner" >
<div style="float: left; margin: 1px; width: 202px">
<div class="thumbimage">[[File:World map of Energy consumption 1961,2.svg|200px|alt=(Kiri) Peta dunia di mana negara diwarnakan untuk menggambarkan pengambilan tenaga makanan oleh orangnya pada 1961. Amerika Utara, Eropah, dan Australia secara relatifnya pengambilan tenaga makanan tinggi, manakala Afrika dan Asia kurang mengambil tenaga makanan.]]
</div>
<div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left">1961
</div>
</div><div style="float: left; margin: 1px; width: 202px">
<div class="thumbimage">[[File:World map of Energy consumption 2001-2003.svg|200px|alt=(Kanan) Peta dunia di mana negara diwarnakan untuk menggambarkan pengambilan tenaga makanan oleh orangnya pada 2001–2003. Pengambilan tenaga makanan di Amerika Utara, Eropah, dan Australia bertambah daripada paras sebelumnya pada 1971. Pengambilan tenaga makanan turut bertambah dengan banyaknya di banyak bahagian Asia. Walau bagaimanapun, pengambilan tenaga makanan di Afrika tetap rendah.]]
</div><div class="thumbcaption" style="clear:left">2001–03
</div>
</div><div class="thumbcaption" style="clear: left; text-align: left; background: transparent">Peta ketersediaan tenaga diet setiap orang setiap hari pada 1961 (kiri) dan 2001–2003 (kanan)<ref name=Earth09/> Kalori setiap orang setiap hari (kilojoule setiap orang setiap hari)
{{Multicol}}
{{legend|#b3b3b3|<small>tiada data</small>}}
{{legend|#ffff65|<small><1,600 (<6,700)</small>}}
{{legend|#fff200|<small>1,600–1,800 (6,700–7,500)</small>}}
{{legend|#ffdc00|<small>1,800–2,000 (7,500–8,400)</small>}}
{{legend|#ffc600|<small>2,000–2,200 (8,400–9,200)</small>}}
{{legend|#ffb000|<small>2,200–2,400 (9,200–10,000)</small>}}
{{legend|#ff9a00|<small>2,400–2,600 (10,000–10,900)</small>}}
{{Multicol-break}}
{{legend|#ff8400|<small>2,600–2,800 (10,900–11,700)</small>}}
{{legend|#ff6e00|<small>2,800–3,000 (11,700–12,600)</small>}}
{{legend|#ff5800|<small>3,000–3,200 (12,600–13,400)</small>}}
{{legend|#ff4200|<small>3,200–3,400 (13,400–14,200)</small>}}
{{legend|#ff2c00|<small>3,400–3,600 (14,200–15,100)</small>}}
{{legend|#cb0000|<small>>3,600 (>15,100)</small>}}
{{Multicol-end}}
</div>
</div>
</div>

[[File:World Per Person Energy Consumption.png|thumb|upright=1.6|alt=Graf menunjukkan peningkatan beransur-ansur pengambilan tenaga makanan global setiap orang setiap hari antara 1961 hingga 2002.|Purata per kapita pengambilan tenaga serata dunia dari 1961 hingga 2002<ref name=Earth09>{{cite web|url=http://earthtrends.wri.org/searchable_db/index.php?theme=8&variable_ID=212&action=select_countries |title=EarthTrends: Nutrition: Calorie supply per capita |work=World Resources Institute |accessdate=Oct 18, 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110611160708/http://earthtrends.wri.org/searchable_db/index.php?theme=8&variable_ID=212&action=select_countries |archivedate=2011-06-11}}</ref>]]

Bekalan tenaga diet per kapita berbeza-beza antara wilayah dan negara yang berbeza. Ia juga berubah dengan nyata sekali mengikut peredaran masa.<ref name=Earth09/> Dari awal 1970-an hingga akhir 1990-an, purata ketersediaan tenaga makanan setiap orang setiap hari (bilangan makanan yang dibeli) bertambah di semua bahagian dunia kecuali Eropah Timur. Amerika Syarikat mempunyai ketersediaan tenaga makanan paling tinggi dengan {{convert|3654|Cal}} setiap orang pada 1996.<ref name=Earth09/> Ini jelas bertambah pada 2003 kepada {{convert|3754|Cal}}.<ref name=Earth09/> Semasa akhir 1990-an, kawasan Eropah mempunyai {{convert|3394|Cal}} setiap orang, di kawasan membangun Asia mempunyai {{convert|2648|Cal}} setiap orang, dan di kawasan sub-Sahara Afrika mempunyai {{convert|2176|Cal}} setiap orang.<ref name=Earth09/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/1470965/USDA-frsept99b |title=USDA: frsept99b |work=[[United States Department of Agriculture]] |accessdate=January 10, 2009}}</ref> Jumlah pengambilan tenaga makanan didapati berkait rapat dengan obesiti.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/82-003-x/2009004/article/10933-eng.htm |title=Diet composition and obesity among Canadian adults |work=Statistics Canada |accessdate=}}</ref>

Ketersediaan panduan nutrisi pemakanan yang meluas<ref>{{cite web|author=National Control for Health Statistics |title=Nutrition For Everyone |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |url=http://www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/nutrition/nutrition_for_everyone |accessdate=2008-07-09}}</ref> dilihat tidak cukup untuk mengatasi masalah makan terlebih dan pemilihan diet yang tidak berkhasiat.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Marantz PR, Bird ED, Alderman MH | title = A call for higher standards of evidence for dietary guidelines | journal = Am J Prev Med | volume = 34 | issue = 3 | pages = 234–40 | date = March 2008 | pmid = 18312812 | doi = 10.1016/j.amepre.2007.11.017 | url =  }}</ref> Dari 1971 hingga 2000, kadar obesiti di Amerika Syarikat bertambah dari 14.5% hingga 30.9%.<ref name=Flegal2002>{{cite journal | author = Flegal KM, Carroll MD, Ogden CL, Johnson CL | title = Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999–2000 | journal = [[JAMA (journal)|JAMA]] | volume = 288 | issue = 14 | pages = 1723–1727 | date = October 2002 | pmid = 12365955 | doi = 10.1001/jama.288.14.1723 | url = http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/288/14/1723 }}</ref> Ketika tempoh yang sama, berlaku pertambahan jumlah tenaga makanan yang diambil. Bagi wanita, pertambahan purata ialah {{convert|335|Cal}} setiap hari ({{convert|1542|Cal}} pada 1971 dan {{convert|1877|Cal}} pada 2004), manakala bagi lelaki, pertambahan purata ialah {{convert|168|Cal}} setiap hari ({{convert|2450|Cal}} pada 1971 dan {{convert|2618|Cal}} pada 2004). Kebanyakan lebihan tenaga makanan datang daripada peningkatan pengambilan karbohidrat berbanding pengambilan lemak.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Wright JD, Kennedy-Stephenson J, Wang CY, McDowell MA, Johnson CL | title = Trends in intake of energy and macronutrients—United States, 1971–2000 | journal = MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep | volume = 53 | issue = 4 | pages = 80–2 | date = February 2004 | pmid = 14762332 | url = http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5304a3.htm }}</ref> Sumber asas lebihan karbohidrat ialah minuman manis, di mana sekarang ini meliputi 25 peratus daripada tenaga makanan harian dalam kalangan orang dewasa di Amerika,<ref name=Caballero>{{cite journal | author = Caballero B | title = The global epidemic of obesity: An overview | journal = Epidemiol Rev | volume = 29 | issue =  | pages = 1–5 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17569676 | doi = 10.1093/epirev/mxm012 | url =  }}</ref> dan kentang goreng.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Mozaffarian D, Hao T, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Hu FB | title = Changes in Diet and Lifestyle and Long-Term Weight Gain in Women and Men | journal = The New England Journal of Medicine | volume = 364 | issue = 25 | pages = 2392–404 | date = 23 June 2011 | pmid = 21696306 | pmc = 3151731 | doi = 10.1056/NEJMoa1014296 | type = Meta-analysis }}</ref> Pengambilan minuman manis seperti minuman ringan, minuman buah, teh ais, dan minuman air bertenaga dan bervitamin dipercayai menjadi penyumbang kepada peningkatan mendadak kadar obesiti<ref>{{cite journal | author = Malik VS, Schulze MB, Hu FB | title = Intake of sugar-sweetened beverages and weight gain: a systematic review | journal = Am. J. Clin. Nutr. | volume = 84 | issue = 2 | pages = 274–88 | date = August 2006 | pmid = 16895873 | pmc = 3210834 | doi =  | url = http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/full/84/2/274 | type = Review }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Olsen NJ, Heitmann BL | title = Intake of calorically sweetened beverages and obesity | journal = Obes Rev | volume = 10 | issue = 1 | pages = 68–75 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 18764885 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00523.x | type = Review }}</ref> dan meningkatnya risiko sindrom metabolik dan diabetes melitus tahap 2.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Malik VS, Popkin BM, Bray GA, Després JP, Willett WC, Hu FB |title=Sugar-sweetened beverages and risk of metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes: a meta-analysis |journal=Diabetes Care |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=2477–83 |date=November 2010  |pmid=20693348 |pmc=2963518 |doi=10.2337/dc10-1079 |url= |type=Meta-analysis, Review}}</ref>

Bila mana masyarakat terus-menerus bergantung dengan tenaga makanan yang padat, hidangan yang besar, dan makanan segera, perkaitan antara pengambilan makanan segera dan obesiti menjadi semakin membimbangkan.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Rosenheck R | title = Fast food consumption and increased caloric intake: a systematic review of a trajectory towards weight gain and obesity risk | journal = Obes Rev | volume = 9 | issue = 6 | pages = 535–47 | date = November 2008 | pmid = 18346099 | doi = 10.1111/j.1467-789X.2008.00477.x | url = | type = Review }}</ref> Di Amerika Syarikat, pengambilan makanan segera bertiga kali ganda dan pengambilan tenaga makanan ini berempat kali ganda antara 1977 hingga 1995.<ref>{{cite book |author=Lin BH, Guthrie J and Frazao E |editor=Frazão E |title=Agriculture Information Bulletin No. 750: America's Eating Habits: Changes and Consequences |url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/aib-agricultural-information-bulletin/aib750.aspx |year=1999 |publisher=US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service |location=Washington, DC |pages=213–239 |chapter=Nutrient contribution of food away from home |access-date=2016-02-18 |archive-date=2012-07-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120708043622/http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/aib-agricultural-information-bulletin/aib750.aspx |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Dasar pertanian dan Revolusi Hijau di Amerika Syarikat dan Eropah telah membawa kepada rendahnya harga makanan. Di Amerika Syarikat, pemberian subsidi jagung, soya, gandum, dan beras melalui undang-undang ladang Amerika Syarikat sememangnya membolehkan sumber utama makanan diproses murah berbanding buah-buahan dan sayur-sayuran.<ref>{{cite news|author=Pollan, Michael |title=You Are What You Grow |work=New York Times |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2007/04/22/magazine/22wwlnlede.t.html?ex=1186027200&en=bbe0f6a2c10e3b3c&ei=5070 |date=22 April 2007 |accessdate=2007-07-30}}</ref> Cubaan undang-undang pengiraan kalori dan label fakta pemakanan dibuat untuk menggalakkan masyarakat memilih makanan yang lebih menyihatkan, termasuklah kesedaran berapa banyak tenaga makanan yang diambil.

Orang obes selalunya tidak melaporkan pengambilan makanan mereka berbanding orang yang berat normal.<ref>Kopelman and Caterson 2005:324.</ref> Hal ini turut disokong oleh ujian yang dilakukan ke atas ramai orang di dalam bilik kalorimeter<ref>{{cite book|title=Metabolism alone doesn't explain how thin people stay thin |publisher=The Medical Post |work=John Schieszer}}</ref> dan pemerhatian secara langsung.

===Gaya hidup banyak duduk===
{{See also|Gaya hidup banyak duduk|Trend senaman}}
Gaya hidup banyak duduk memainkan peranan penting dalam obesiti.<ref>Seidell 2005 p.10</ref> Di serata dunia, terdapat anjakan besar ke arah kerja yang kurang menggunakan kekuatan jasmani,<ref name=WHO2009>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/publications/facts/obesity/en/ |title=WHO: Obesity and overweight |work=[[World Health Organization]] |accessdate=January 10, 2009 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218104805/http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/publications/facts/obesity/en/ |archivedate=December 18, 2008}}</ref><ref name=WHOExercise>{{cite web|url=http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/factsheet_inactivity/en/index.html |title=WHO &#124; Physical Inactivity: A Global Public Health Problem |work=[[World Health Organization]] |accessdate=February 22, 2009}}</ref><ref name=Ness2006>{{cite journal | author = Ness-Abramof R, Apovian CM | title = Diet modification for treatment and prevention of obesity | journal = Endocrine | volume = 29 | issue = 1 | pages = 5–9 | date = February 2006 | pmid = 16622287 | doi = 10.1385/ENDO:29:1:135 | url = | type = Review }}</ref> dan baru-baru ini lebih kurang 30% daripada populasi di dunia tidak membuat senaman yang mencukupi.<ref name=WHOExercise/> Hal ini juga didorong oleh peningkatan penggunaan pengangkutan berjentera dan ketersebarluasan teknologi yang menjimatkan tenaga buruh di rumah.<ref name=WHO2009/><ref name=WHOExercise/><ref name=Ness2006/> Dalam kalangan kanak-kanak, kelihatannya berlaku penurunan tahap aktiviti jasmani disebabkan kurangnya berjalan dan pendidikan jasmani.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Salmon J, Timperio A | title = Prevalence, trends and environmental influences on child and youth physical activity | journal = Med Sport Sci | volume = 50 | issue =  | pages = 183–99 | year = 2007 | pmid = 17387258 | doi = 10.1159/000101391 | isbn = 978-3-318-01396-2 | series = Medicine and Sport Science | type = Review }}</ref> Trend dunia meluangkan masa senggang dengan melakukan aktiviti jasmani semakin tidak jelas. Pertubuhan Kesihatan Dunia menunjukkan masyarakat serata dunia kurang aktif berekreasi, manakala kajian dari Finland<ref>{{cite journal | author = Borodulin K, Laatikainen T, Juolevi A, Jousilahti P | title = Thirty-year trends of physical activity in relation to age, calendar time and birth cohort in Finnish adults | journal = Eur J Public Health | volume = 18 | issue = 3 | pages = 339–44 | date = June 2008 | pmid = 17875578 | doi = 10.1093/eurpub/ckm092 | url = | type = Research Support }}</ref> mendapati peningkatan dan kajian dari Amerika Syarikat mendapati masa senggang untuk aktiviti jasmani tidaklah berubah dengan ketara.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Brownson RC, Boehmer TK, Luke DA | title = Declining rates of physical activity in the United States: what are the contributors? | journal = Annu Rev Public Health | volume = 26 | issue =  | pages = 421–43 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15760296 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144437 | url = | type = Review }}</ref>

Dalam kalangan kanak-kanak dan dewasa, terdapat hubung kait antara masa menonton televisyen dengan risiko obesiti.<ref>{{cite journal | author = Gortmaker SL, Must A, Sobol AM, Peterson K, Colditz GA, Dietz WH | title = Television viewing as a cause of increasing obesity among children in the United States, 1986–1990 | journal = Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med | volume = 150 | issue = 4 | pages = 356–62 | date = April 1996 | pmid = 8634729 | doi = 10.1001/archpedi.1996.02170290022003 | type = Review }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Vioque J, Torres A, Quiles J | title = Time spent watching television, sleep duration and obesity in adults living in Valencia, Spain | journal = Int. J. Obes. Relat. Metab. Disord. | volume = 24 | issue = 12 | pages = 1683–8 | date = December 2000 | pmid = 11126224 | doi = 10.1038/sj.ijo.0801434 | url = | type = Research Support }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | author = Tucker LA, Bagwell M | title = Television viewing and obesity in adult females | journal = Am J Public Health | volume = 81 | issue = 7 | pages = 908–11 | date = July 1991 | pmid = 2053671 | pmc = 1405200 | doi = 10.2105/AJPH.81.7.908 | url = http://www.ajph.org/cgi/reprint/81/7/908 | format = PDF }}</ref>

== Lihat juga ==
* [[Obesiti di Malaysia]]

==Rujukan==
=== Nota kaki ===
{{reflist}}

== Pautan luar ==
{{commonscat|Obesity}}
* {{id}} [http://www.scientificpsychic.com/fitness/diet-kalkulator-id.html Diet kalkulator dan Lemak Badan Kalkulator]
* {{id}} [http://www.indomedia.com/intisari/2001/Des/warna_diabetes1.htm Jauhi Gemuk Kendalikan Diabetes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929084041/http://www.indomedia.com/intisari/2001/Des/warna_diabetes1.htm |date=2007-09-29 }}
* {{ms}} [http://www.infosihat.gov.my/Penyakit_J_Jantun_ku_p01.html Berat badan berlebihan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916191213/http://www.infosihat.gov.my/Penyakit_J_Jantun_ku_p01.html |date=2008-09-16 }}
{{rencana pilihan}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Kategori:Obesiti| ]]
[[Kategori:Penyakit dan gangguan]]
[[Kategori:Bentuk badan]]
[[Kategori:Nutrisi]]
[[Kategori:WPPER]]